United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, mainly known as the U.K., United Kingdom or Britain; is a sovereign state in the North-West part of Europe. The U.K. has four constituent countries: England, Wales, Scotland (togethor these three make up Great Britain) and Northern Ireland.

Before 1066
The U.K. has had a varied history over the years. The country was first populated around 30,000 years ago. In 43AD, the Romans invaded England, driving the many of the Celts into Scotland, building Hadrian's Wall to keep them out. When the Romans left, Anglo-Saxons dominated many southern areas, while several Viking Settlements were estabilished in the North. These two peoples were in constant conflict up until 1066.

The Norman Conquest
After several failed battles, the Vikings planned to invade into Northern England after being driven out by the Anglo Saxons. At the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the Anglo Saxon king Harald defeated the Vikings in the North. With a weakened army, the Norman king William (known as William the Conquerer) set out from Northern France and met at the Battle of Hastings with Harald. Despite not having the high ground, Harald lost, ultimatly dying with an arrow in his eye. Scotland at the time was separate to this, and had its own Kingdom until the early 1600s.

War of the Roses
The War of the Roses, commonly known as the cousins war, took place between two different houses of the royal family, between the House of York (who had a white rose), and the House of Lancaster (who had a red rose). Although the rivalry started in the 1300s, it wasn't until the latter half of the 1400s that the fighting broke out between King Henry VI (Lancaster) and King Edward IV (York) and his brothers George (who later was drowned for witchcraft) and King Richard III (who was crowned after Edward's death). King Edward dominated this period, apart from a brief time in the 1470s, where Edward's uncle (who'd changed sides to attempt to put his daughter, Anne, and her husband, Edward of Lancaster, who later died, on the thrown) put the ailing King Henry back until Edward fought back. However, when Edward died of a fever in 1483, his son King Edward V (who was never crowned) was only 13. Richard III had him and his brother Richard put in the tower, although they later disappeared presumed to be dead. Richard's own son had died early as well as his wife Anne, which left the path clear for Henry Tudor (later Henry VII) who had spent his years growing up with uncle in Brittany, of the coast of France. Henry defeated Richard to take the crown and subsquently ending the war by marrying Edward's daughter Elizabeth.

Tudor times
While Henry's reign past mostly with out major incident, his son Henry VIII's did not. After marrying Catherine of Aragon, who had been previously married Henry's older brother Arthur who died early, had only produced his daughter Mary (who later married the King of Spain), he decided to changed the religion of the country from Catholic to the Church of England (later Protestant) so he could divorce her and marry Anne Boleyn. She was executed for adultary, and Henry married Jane, who produced a son Edward VI, but she died in child birth. Henry married three more wives who took the same treatment as the previous three (taking the total to six), except Catherien Parr (the last) who survived. After Henry's death, his son Edward VI took the thrown aged 10. He ruled for five years, until he died of a fever. Following Edward's death, Lady Jane Grey ruled for nine days, the shortest in history. After losing out to Henry's daughter Mary I (who was married to Phillip II of Spain), she was beheaded at the Tower of London, aged just 17. Mary brought back Catholicsm as the religion of England. Her half-sister Elizabeth I was imprisoned by Mary on suspision of supporting Protestant rebels. When Mary died, Elizabeth took rule and restored the Protestant relgion. Elizabeth's reign took opposition from Phillip, who launched a failed attack to retake England. She also saw her rival and cousin, Mary Queen of Scots (mother of James VI and I) executed. After 44 years of reign, Elizabeth died ending Tudor rule.

Stuart times
After all three of Henry VIII's children had died without issue, the crown of England was past on to the nearest related successor, James VI (I of England), who was also the King of Scotland at the time. He united the two kingdoms (as Wales was already part of England) to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. Religion once again played a part, with James I and his son Charles I both seeing executions to those practising Catholicsm. However, the relgious thing came to a halt with the English civil war. Charles was executed, and Oliver Cromwell took charge, the only time that a Monarch has not ruled. When Oliver died, his son Richard took over but with little success. Charles' son, Charles II took back the thrown in 1660, but later revealed to be a catholic. Charles ruled until 1685, when his bother James II (VII in Scotland) took over. After he too was catholic, parliament handed power to the Dutch King William III who had married his daughter Mary II, both of them were protestants and co-ruled until Mary's death in 1694, and self-ruled until 1702, when Mary's sister Anne took charge. She passed the Act of Union in 1707, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Anne died seven years later, ending Stuart rule.

Hannover times
With the death of Anne, the next in line was her half brother James Stuart. However, the Act of Settlement past in 1701 menat that no Catholic heirs could be crowned. Therefore, the crown passed to the King of Hannover, George I. At this time, Britain's first Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole, took charge, in changes that saw the British monarch have less power in the running of the country and more power to parliament. The Hannover's continued to rule until the early 1800s, until a split, where William IV handed rule in Hannover to his brother Ernest, while the British crown was handed to his neice Victoria, ending Hannover rule.

Victorian times
Victoria took the crown aged just 18. In her time, she saw the British Empire expand to take up expansions to the Empire in North and Central America, Asia and Africa. She surpassed all of her predecessers as the longest reigning monarch, as well as the longest reigning female monarch.

Two World Wars
With the death of Victoria, her son Edward VII took the thrown for nine years, compared to his mother's 63. When Edward died, his son George V took the thrown. Four years into George's reign, World War I broke out (known the as the great war). With politics coming into play, Britain was on opposing sides to Germany, even though the two royal families were related. With the fall of German, Russian and Ottoman empires, the British empire expanded further. Britain sufferred as a result of World War I, with heavy losses to its armies resulting in a loss of workforce who had gone to fight. George's son Edward VII took charge for only 11 months, as he choose to abdicate and marry Wallis Simpson, who had been married previously, and as a result could not take charge. Edward's brother George VI took charge. With Nazi Germany taking up Central Europe, Britain and France signed a deal with Poland that if the Germany went into Poland, they would declare with Germany. As a result, war broke out. The U.K. had an agreement with the Soviet Union and the United States at the end of the Second World War to end the war and bring down the Nazis.

50s, 60s and 70s
The Second World War left a lot of deverstation in Britain, which had sufferred losses and had a sortage of labour. As a result, the British government invited skilled workers from the British Empire (which still occupied a vast area in the 1950s) to come and work in the U.K. to replace the labour shortages of the time. The 50s also saw a baby boom, partly because of the need to replace those who didn't return, but also because the NHS (National Health Service) had been formed which meant that a free health service was provided to everyone. The economy of Britain recovered after World War Two, but rationing continued for ten more years after the war ended. The manufacturing industry, however, sufferred in the 1970s, where several strike were caused resulting in the closure of several factories and businesses.

The Thatcher Years (79-90)
In 1979, after not being in power for five years, the Conservative Party (right wing) retook power, with Margeret Thatcher (a.k.a. The Iron Lady) as Prime Minister. Thatcher prioritised money and inflation, instead of the unemployed, which resulted in 3 million people being unemployed by 1981. The manufacturing decline of the 1970s continued in the 1980s, as Thatcher did not particular care for industry-heavy North, instead focusing her attention elsewhere. As a result, the Conservative Party ("Tories") and Thatcher became very unpopular in the North, causing the mining industry to almost vanish and the manufacturing industry to decline even further. The effects of Thatcher in the North are still felt today, with not many supporters of the Tories in the North. Thatcher also had to deal with the I.R.A. (Irish Republic Army) in Northern Ireland, which although there were some crimes committed, it didn't spiral until later. Instead, Thatcher had to focus her attention on the invasion of the Falkland Islands by Argentina in 1982, where after two months, Argentine forces were driven out, with a result of 800 dead. The victory of the Falklands war helped her get reelected in 1983. In 1984, many miners went on strike as closures were threatened by the state-owned National Coal Board. As a result, the remaining 15 mines were privatised. This lead to further privatisations, including BT (British Telecom), utilities companies and the railways were just some of the state-owned facilites that Thatcher sold off. With tensions rising between the government and the I.R.A., the I.R.A. bombed a hotel in Brighton where Thatcher was planning to do a speech, which Thatcher escaped. Despite international pressure, Thatcher refused to apply economic sanctions on South Africa, despite them imprisioning future leader Nelson Mandela. The final hatred of Thatcher by working classes was the introduction of the Poll Tax. As a result lower earners paid more than higher earners.

The 90s
After the fall of Margeret Thatcher, John Major (still Conservative) took charge, but continued to lose votes throughout his time as Prime Minister. Major kept a slim majority in 1992 to remain in power, losing a lot of votes compared to Thatcher. Tensions between the government and the IRA in Northern Ireland had come to breaking point in the 1990s, with over 400 attacks leaving many dead. A provisional ceasfire took place in 1994, but attacks continued in 1995 because the Tories refused to coorporate with the Northern Ireland party Sinn Fein, who has the support of the I.R.A. In 1997, Tony Blair (Labour) won a landslide majority of 417 seats, compared to Major's 165. The Labour party brought an end of attacks by cooporating with the I.R.A., ending 18 years of conflict. The landside election result left the Tories without any representation in both Wales and Scotland.

The Blair Years (97-07)
After winning a landslide, Blair first introduced the National Minimum wage, something that has been kept today. He also increased spending of childcare, increasing Child Benefit and income support by 70%, and continued to bring the poor away from the poverrty line. He also brought in the Countryside and Right of Way Act (2000), which allowed members of the public to be able to walk 3,200 sq. miles of open countryside. However, although he had support of lower income earners, his foreign policy came under scruitiny. First came the war in Afghanistan in 2001, followed by the war in Iraq in 2004, both of which (especially Iraq) came under scruitiny later on. Apart from politics and continued growth, Queen Elizabeth II celebrated her Golden Jubilee (50 years on the thrown) in 2002. Celebrations were mild though, after the death of the Queen Mother (who had outlived her husband George V by 50 years) and her own sister, Margeret. On the 6th July 2005, it was announced that London would be hosting the 2012 Olympics, after not hosting the event since the 1940s. However, the day after (7th July) saw the biggest terrorist attack on British soil. The bombs were set at rush hour, 3 on the London underground network, but one on a bus, leaving very memorable images of destruction. Blair stood down in 2007, after ten years of power.

The Brown years (07-10)
After Blair stood down, former Chancellor Gorden Brown took charge, still under Labour leadership. Under Brown's short reign, he saw the increase of national holiday pay from 4.8 weeks to 5.6 weeks per year. However, the banking crisis in 2008 saw Britain fell in to a deep recession, with many banks requiring government loans.

The 2010s
Brown lost the 2010 general election, leading to a coalition government between the Conservative party and the centre party; Liberal Democrats, resulting in the first coalition since the Second World War. Following the financial crisis, Cameron introduced cuts of £100 billion. With the rise of Arab Spring in 2011, British armed forces took part in Lybia, but not in Syria. In 2012, the Queen celebrated her Diamond Jubilee (60 years). This was a more joyous occassion, with a public holiday announced along with other celebrations. Later that year, London hosted the olympics, with Great Britain coming 3rd, the best performance in a long time. With rising support of the Scottish National Party (SNP) in Scotland, the government allowed a referendum of Scottish independence to take place in 2014. Scotland rejected the chance to become independent, remaining part of the U.K.

Area
Britain has approximately 94,600 sq. miles (245,000 sq. km.) of total area. The table below breaks this down into different sections.

Physical Geography
The physical geography of the U.K. varies greatly. England consists of mostly lowland terrain, with upland or mountainous terrain only found north-west of the Tees-Exe line. The upland areas include the Lake District, the Pennines, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The lowland areas are typically traversed by ranges of low hills, frequently composed of chalk. The physical geography of Scotland is distinguished by the Highland Boundary Fault which traverses the Scottish mainland from Helensburgh to Stonehaven. The faultline separates the two distinctively different regions of the Highlands to the north and west, and the lowlands to the south and east. Wales is mostly mountainous, though south Wales is less mountainous than north and mid Wales. The geography of Ireland includes the Mourne Mountains as well as Lough Neagh, at 388 square kilometres (150 sq mi), the largest body of water in the U.K..

The overall geomorphology of the U.K. was shaped by the combined forces of tectonics and climate change, in particular glaciation.

The exact centre of the island of Great Britain is disputed. Depending upon how it is calculated it can be either Haltwhistle in Northumberland, or Dunsop Bridge in Lancashire.

The tallest mountain in the U.K. (and British Isles) is Ben Nevis, in the Grampian Mountains, Scotland. The longest river is the River Severn, in England and Wales. The largest lake is Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland, though Scotland's Loch Ness has the largest volume.

Mountains
The ten tallest mountains in the UK are all found in Scotland. The highest peaks in each part of the UK are:
 * Scotland: Ben Nevis, 1,344 metres
 * Wales: Snowdon]] (Snowdonia), 1,085 metres
 * England: Scafell Pike (Cumbrian Mountains), 978 metres
 * Northern Ireland: Slieve Donard (Mourne Mountains), 852 metres

Rivers and Lakes
The longest river in the UK is the River Severn (220 mi; 350 km) which flows through both Wales and England.

The longest rivers in the UK contained wholly within each of its constituent nations are:
 * England: River Thames (215 mi; 346 km)
 * Scotland: River Tay (117 mi; 188 km)
 * N. Ireland: River Bann (76 mi; 122 km)
 * Wales: River Tywi (64 mi; 103 km)

The largest lakes (by surface area) in the UK by country are:
 * N. Ireland: Lough Neagh (147.39 sq mi; 381.7 km2)
 * Scotland: Loch Lomond (27.46 sq mi; 71.1 km2)
 * England: Windermere (5.69 sq mi; 14.7 km2)
 * Wales: Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake) (1.87 sq mi; 4.8 km2)

The deepest lake in the UK is Loch Morar with a maximum depth of 309 metres (Loch Ness is second at 228 metres deep). The deepest lake in England is Wastwater which achieves a depth of 79 metres (259 feet).

Canals
As a result of its industrial history, the United Kingdom has an extensive system of canals, mostly built in the early years of the Industrial Revolution, before the rise of competition from the railways. The United Kingdom also has numerous dams and reservoirs to store water for drinking and industry. The generation of hydroelectric power is rather limited, supplying less than 2% of British electricity mainly from the Scottish Highlands.

Coastline
The UK has a coastline which measures about 12,429 km. The heavy indentation of the coastline helps to ensure that no location is more than 125 km from tidal waters.

The UK claims jurisdiction over the continental shelf, as defined in continental shelf orders or in accordance with agreed upon boundaries, an exclusive fishing zone of 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi), and territorial sea of 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi).

Climate
The United Kingdom straddles the geographic mid-latitudes between 49–61 N. It is on the western seaboard of Afro-Eurasia, the world's largest land mass. These conditions allow convergence between moist maritime air and dry continental air. In this area, the large temperature variation creates atmospheric instability and this is a major factor that influences the often unsettled weather the country experiences, where many types of weather can be experienced in a single day.

England
England has warmer maximum and minimum temperatures throughout the year than the other areas of the UK, though Wales has milder minima from November to February, and Northern Ireland has warmer maxima from December to February. England is also sunnier throughout the year, but unlike Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland, the sunniest month is July, totaling 193.5 hours. It rains on fewer days in every month throughout the year than the rest of the UK, and rainfall totals are less in every month, with the driest month, May, averaging 58.4 mm (2.30 in). The climate of south-west England experiences a seasonal temperature variation, although it is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom. Gales are less common in England compared to Scotland, however on some occasions there can be strong winds, and rarely, the remains of Atlantic hurricanes and tropical storms. Some events such as the Great Storm of 1987 occurred near to the UK and caused damage in England. The prevailing wind direction for the UK is normally the south-west.

Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is warmer than Scotland throughout the year. Maximum temperatures are milder than in Wales from December to April, and milder than in England from December to February, but Northern Ireland is cooler during the rest of the year. Sunshine totals in every month are more than those of Scotland, but less than those of the rest of Great Britain. Northern Ireland is drier and has fewer rainy days than Scotland throughout the year, except in May, when it rains on more days. Northern Ireland is also drier than Wales in every month, yet it rains on more days. The rainiest month is January, when 17.8 days have more than 1 mm (0.04 in) of rain on average.

Scotland
Scotland has the coolest weather of any country in the United Kingdom throughout the year (with the altitude climate varying into Cfc), with average minimum temperatures in January of −0.2 °C (31.6 °F). Scotland is also the wettest country in every month, apart from in May, June and December, when Wales is wetter. The wettest month is January, with 170.5 mm (6.71 in) on average. Scotland is also the cloudiest country throughout the year, apart from in June and July, when Northern Ireland is.

Wales
Wales has warmer temperatures throughout the year than Scotland, and has milder winter minima than England, but cooler winter maxima than Northern Ireland. Wales is wetter throughout the year than Northern Ireland and England, but has fewer rainy days than Northern Ireland; meaning that rainfall tends to be more intense. Wales is also drier than Scotland in every month apart from May, June and December, and there are fewer days with rain than in Scotland. Sunshine totals throughout the year are more than that of Scotland and Northern Ireland, but less than that of neighbouring England. May is the sunniest month, averaging 186.8 hours.

Geology
The geology of the UK is complex and diverse, a result of it being subject to a variety of plate tectonic processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, whilst successive continental collisions have affected its geological structure with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each orogeny (mountain-building period), often associated with volcanic activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences. As a result of this eventful geological history, the UK shows a rich variety of landscapes.

Seismographical research shows that the crust of the Earth below Great Britain is from 27 to 35 km (17 to 22 miles) thick. The oldest rocks are found at the surface in north west Scotland and are more than half as old as the planet. These rocks are thought to underlie much of Great Britain and Ireland (although boreholes have only penetrated the first few kilometres), but next appear extensively at the surface in Brittany and the Channel Islands. The youngest rocks are found in south east England.

God Save the Queen


God save our gracious Queen! Long live our noble Queen! God save our Queen! Send her victorious, Happy and glorious, Long to reign over us: God save our Queen!

O Lord our God arise, Scatter her enemies, And make them fall: Confound their politics, Frustrate their knavish tricks, On Thee our hopes we fix: God save us all.

Thy choicest gifts in store, On her be pleased to pour; Long may she reign: May she defend our laws, And ever give us cause, To sing with heart and voice, God save our Queen!